Merge branch 'dcreager/explicit-constriants' into cjm/callable-return-fixed

* dcreager/explicit-constriants:
  update expected output for graph display test
  store this in constraint, not node
  track whether constraints are explicit or not
  track source_order in PathAssignments
  [ty] Use `title` for configuration code fences in ty reference documentation (#21992)

crates/ruff_benchmark/benches/ty_walltime.rs

@@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ static SYMPY: Benchmark = Benchmark::new(
         max_dep_date: "2025-06-17",
         python_version: PythonVersion::PY312,
     },
-    13030,
+    13100,
 );
 
 static TANJUN: Benchmark = Benchmark::new(
@@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ static STATIC_FRAME: Benchmark = Benchmark::new(
         max_dep_date: "2025-08-09",
         python_version: PythonVersion::PY311,
     },
-    950,
+    1100,
 );
 
 #[track_caller]

crates/ruff_dev/src/generate_ty_options.rs

@@ -166,8 +166,9 @@ fn emit_field(output: &mut String, name: &str, field: &OptionField, parents: &[S
     output.push('\n');
     let _ = writeln!(output, "**Type**: `{}`", field.value_type);
     output.push('\n');
-    output.push_str("**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):\n\n");
+    output.push_str("**Example usage**:\n\n");
     output.push_str(&format_example(
+        "pyproject.toml",
         &format_header(
             field.scope,
             field.example,
@@ -179,11 +180,11 @@ fn emit_field(output: &mut String, name: &str, field: &OptionField, parents: &[S
     output.push('\n');
 }
 
-fn format_example(header: &str, content: &str) -> String {
+fn format_example(title: &str, header: &str, content: &str) -> String {
     if header.is_empty() {
-        format!("```toml\n{content}\n```\n",)
+        format!("```toml title=\"{title}\"\n{content}\n```\n",)
     } else {
-        format!("```toml\n{header}\n{content}\n```\n",)
+        format!("```toml title=\"{title}\"\n{header}\n{content}\n```\n",)
     }
 }
 

crates/ty/docs/configuration.md

@@ -18,9 +18,9 @@ Valid severities are:
 
 **Type**: `dict[RuleName, "ignore" | "warn" | "error"]`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.rules]
 possibly-unresolved-reference = "warn"
 division-by-zero = "ignore"
@@ -45,9 +45,9 @@ configuration setting.
 
 **Type**: `list[str]`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.environment]
 extra-paths = ["./shared/my-search-path"]
 ```
@@ -76,9 +76,9 @@ This option can be used to point to virtual or system Python environments.
 
 **Type**: `str`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.environment]
 python = "./custom-venv-location/.venv"
 ```
@@ -103,9 +103,9 @@ If no platform is specified, ty will use the current platform:
 
 **Type**: `"win32" | "darwin" | "android" | "ios" | "linux" | "all" | str`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.environment]
 # Tailor type stubs and conditionalized type definitions to windows.
 python-platform = "win32"
@@ -137,9 +137,9 @@ to reflect the differing contents of the standard library across Python versions
 
 **Type**: `"3.7" | "3.8" | "3.9" | "3.10" | "3.11" | "3.12" | "3.13" | "3.14" | <major>.<minor>`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.environment]
 python-version = "3.12"
 ```
@@ -165,9 +165,9 @@ it will also be included in the first party search path.
 
 **Type**: `list[str]`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.environment]
 # Multiple directories (priority order)
 root = ["./src", "./lib", "./vendor"]
@@ -185,9 +185,9 @@ bundled as a zip file in the binary
 
 **Type**: `str`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.environment]
 typeshed = "/path/to/custom/typeshed"
 ```
@@ -240,9 +240,9 @@ If not specified, defaults to `[]` (excludes no files).
 
 **Type**: `list[str]`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [[tool.ty.overrides]]
 exclude = [
     "generated",
@@ -268,9 +268,9 @@ If not specified, defaults to `["**"]` (matches all files).
 
 **Type**: `list[str]`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [[tool.ty.overrides]]
 include = [
     "src",
@@ -292,9 +292,9 @@ severity levels or disable them entirely.
 
 **Type**: `dict[RuleName, "ignore" | "warn" | "error"]`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [[tool.ty.overrides]]
 include = ["src"]
 
@@ -358,9 +358,9 @@ to re-include `dist` use `exclude = ["!dist"]`
 
 **Type**: `list[str]`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.src]
 exclude = [
     "generated",
@@ -399,9 +399,9 @@ matches `<project_root>/src` and not `<project_root>/test/src`).
 
 **Type**: `list[str]`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.src]
 include = [
     "src",
@@ -421,9 +421,9 @@ Enabled by default.
 
 **Type**: `bool`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.src]
 respect-ignore-files = false
 ```
@@ -450,9 +450,9 @@ it will also be included in the first party search path.
 
 **Type**: `str`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.src]
 root = "./app"
 ```
@@ -471,9 +471,9 @@ Defaults to `false`.
 
 **Type**: `bool`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.terminal]
 # Error if ty emits any warning-level diagnostics.
 error-on-warning = true
@@ -491,9 +491,9 @@ Defaults to `full`.
 
 **Type**: `full | concise`
 
-**Example usage** (`pyproject.toml`):
+**Example usage**:
 
-```toml
+```toml title="pyproject.toml"
 [tool.ty.terminal]
 output-format = "concise"
 ```

crates/ty_ide/src/hover.rs

@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 use crate::docstring::Docstring;
 use crate::goto::{GotoTarget, find_goto_target};
-use crate::{Db, HasNavigationTargets, MarkupKind, NavigationTarget, RangedValue};
+use crate::{Db, MarkupKind, RangedValue};
 use ruff_db::files::{File, FileRange};
 use ruff_db::parsed::parsed_module;
 use ruff_text_size::{Ranged, TextSize};
 use std::fmt;
 use std::fmt::Formatter;
-use ty_python_semantic::types::{KnownInstanceType, Type, TypeDetail, TypeVarVariance};
+use ty_python_semantic::types::{KnownInstanceType, Type, TypeVarVariance};
 use ty_python_semantic::{DisplaySettings, SemanticModel};
 
 pub fn hover(db: &dyn Db, file: File, offset: TextSize) -> Option<RangedValue<Hover<'_>>> {
@@ -59,21 +59,13 @@ pub struct Hover<'db> {
     contents: Vec<HoverContent<'db>>,
 }
 
-type Linkify<'a> = &'a dyn Fn(&NavigationTarget) -> Option<String>;
-
 impl<'db> Hover<'db> {
     /// Renders the hover to a string using the specified markup kind.
-    pub const fn display<'a>(
-        &'a self,
-        db: &'db dyn Db,
-        kind: MarkupKind,
-        linkify: Linkify<'a>,
-    ) -> DisplayHover<'db, 'a> {
+    pub const fn display<'a>(&'a self, db: &'db dyn Db, kind: MarkupKind) -> DisplayHover<'db, 'a> {
         DisplayHover {
             db,
             hover: self,
             kind,
-            linkify,
         }
     }
 
@@ -104,7 +96,6 @@ pub struct DisplayHover<'db, 'a> {
     db: &'db dyn Db,
     hover: &'a Hover<'db>,
     kind: MarkupKind,
-    linkify: Linkify<'a>,
 }
 
 impl fmt::Display for DisplayHover<'_, '_> {
@@ -115,7 +106,7 @@ impl fmt::Display for DisplayHover<'_, '_> {
                 self.kind.horizontal_line().fmt(f)?;
             }
 
-            content.display(self.db, self.kind, self.linkify).fmt(f)?;
+            content.display(self.db, self.kind).fmt(f)?;
             first = false;
         }
 
@@ -131,17 +122,11 @@ pub enum HoverContent<'db> {
 }
 
 impl<'db> HoverContent<'db> {
-    fn display<'a>(
-        &'a self,
-        db: &'db dyn Db,
-        kind: MarkupKind,
-        linkify: Linkify<'a>,
-    ) -> DisplayHoverContent<'a, 'db> {
+    fn display(&self, db: &'db dyn Db, kind: MarkupKind) -> DisplayHoverContent<'_, 'db> {
         DisplayHoverContent {
             db,
             content: self,
             kind,
-            linkify,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -150,7 +135,6 @@ pub(crate) struct DisplayHoverContent<'a, 'db> {
     db: &'db dyn Db,
     content: &'a HoverContent<'db>,
     kind: MarkupKind,
-    linkify: Linkify<'a>,
 }
 
 impl fmt::Display for DisplayHoverContent<'_, '_> {
@@ -167,84 +151,21 @@ impl fmt::Display for DisplayHoverContent<'_, '_> {
                     Some(TypeVarVariance::Bivariant) => " (bivariant)",
                     None => "",
                 };
-
-                if self.kind == MarkupKind::Markdown {
-                    let details = ty.display(self.db).to_string_parts();
-
-                    // Ok so the idea here is that we potentially have a random soup of spans here,
-                    // and each byte of the string can have at most one target associate with it.
-                    // Thankfully, they were generally pushed in print order, with the inner smaller types
-                    // appearing before the outer bigger ones.
-                    //
-                    // So we record where we are in the string, and every time we find a type, we
-                    // check if it's further along in the string. If it is, great, we give it the
-                    // span for its range, and then advance where we are.
-                    let mut offset = 0;
-                    for (target, detail) in details.targets.iter().zip(&details.details) {
-                        match detail {
-                            TypeDetail::Type(ty) => {
-                                let start = target.start().to_usize();
-                                let end = target.end().to_usize();
-                                // If we skipped over some bytes, push them with no target
-                                if start > offset {
-                                    write!(f, "{}", escape(&details.label[offset..start]))?;
-                                }
-                                // Ok, this is the first type that claimed these bytes, give it the target
-                                if start >= offset {
-                                    if let Some(target) =
-                                        ty.navigation_targets(self.db).into_iter().next()
-                                        && let Some(uri) = (self.linkify)(&target)
-                                    {
-                                        write!(
-                                            f,
-                                            "[{}]({})",
-                                            escape(&details.label[start..end]),
-                                            uri
-                                        )?;
-                                    } else {
-                                        write!(f, "{}", escape(&details.label[start..end]))?;
-                                    }
-                                    offset = end;
-                                }
-                            }
-                            TypeDetail::SignatureStart
-                            | TypeDetail::SignatureEnd
-                            | TypeDetail::Parameter(_) => {
-                                // Don't care about these
-                            }
-                        }
-                    }
-                    // "flush" the rest of the label without any target
-                    if offset < details.label.len() {
-                        write!(f, "{}", escape(&details.label[offset..details.label.len()]))?;
-                    }
-                    write!(f, "{}", escape(variance))
-                } else {
-                    self.kind
-                        .fenced_code_block(
-                            format!(
-                                "{}{variance}",
-                                ty.display_with(self.db, DisplaySettings::default().multiline())
-                            ),
-                            "python",
-                        )
-                        .fmt(f)
-                }
+                self.kind
+                    .fenced_code_block(
+                        format!(
+                            "{}{variance}",
+                            ty.display_with(self.db, DisplaySettings::default().multiline())
+                        ),
+                        "python",
+                    )
+                    .fmt(f)
             }
             HoverContent::Docstring(docstring) => docstring.render(self.kind).fmt(f),
         }
     }
 }
 
-fn escape(x: &str) -> String {
-    x.replace('[', "\\[")
-        .replace(']', "\\]")
-        .replace('(', "\\(")
-        .replace(')', "\\)")
-        .replace('`', "\\`")
-        .replace('#', "\\#")
-}
-
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
     use crate::tests::{CursorTest, cursor_test};
@@ -3749,9 +3670,9 @@ def function():
             write!(
                 &mut buf,
                 "{plaintext}{line}{markdown}{line}",
-                plaintext = hover.display(&self.db, MarkupKind::PlainText, &|_| None),
+                plaintext = hover.display(&self.db, MarkupKind::PlainText),
                 line = MarkupKind::PlainText.horizontal_line(),
-                markdown = hover.display(&self.db, MarkupKind::Markdown, &|_| None),
+                markdown = hover.display(&self.db, MarkupKind::Markdown),
             )
             .unwrap();
 

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/annotations/self.md

@@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ reveal_type(B().name_does_not_matter())  # revealed: B
 reveal_type(B().positional_only(1))  # revealed: B
 reveal_type(B().keyword_only(x=1))  # revealed: B
 # TODO: This should deally be `B`
-reveal_type(B().decorated_method())  # revealed: Unknown
+reveal_type(B().decorated_method())  # revealed: Self@decorated_method
 
 reveal_type(B().a_property)  # revealed: B
 

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/async.md

@@ -43,9 +43,7 @@ async def main():
     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor() as pool:
         result = await loop.run_in_executor(pool, blocking_function)
-
-        # TODO: should be `int`
-        reveal_type(result)  # revealed: Unknown
+        reveal_type(result)  # revealed: int
 ```
 
 ### `asyncio.Task`

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/dataclasses/fields.md

@@ -82,8 +82,7 @@ def get_default() -> str:
 
 reveal_type(field(default=1))  # revealed: dataclasses.Field[Literal[1]]
 reveal_type(field(default=None))  # revealed: dataclasses.Field[None]
-# TODO: this could ideally be `dataclasses.Field[str]` with a better generics solver
-reveal_type(field(default_factory=get_default))  # revealed: dataclasses.Field[Unknown]
+reveal_type(field(default_factory=get_default))  # revealed: dataclasses.Field[str]
 ```
 
 ## dataclass_transform field_specifiers

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/decorators.md

@@ -144,11 +144,10 @@ from functools import cache
 def f(x: int) -> int:
     return x**2
 
-# TODO: Should be `_lru_cache_wrapper[int]`
-reveal_type(f)  # revealed: _lru_cache_wrapper[Unknown]
-
-# TODO: Should be `int`
-reveal_type(f(1))  # revealed: Unknown
+# revealed: _lru_cache_wrapper[int]
+reveal_type(f)
+# revealed: int
+reveal_type(f(1))
 ```
 
 ## Lambdas as decorators

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/deprecated.md

@@ -11,9 +11,9 @@ classes. Uses of these items should subsequently produce a warning.
 from typing_extensions import deprecated
 
 @deprecated("use OtherClass")
-def myfunc(): ...
+def myfunc(x: int): ...
 
-myfunc()  # error: [deprecated] "use OtherClass"
+myfunc(1)  # error: [deprecated] "use OtherClass"
 ```
 
 ```py

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/generics/legacy/functions.md

@@ -555,8 +555,7 @@ def identity(x: T) -> T:
 def head(xs: list[T]) -> T:
     return xs[0]
 
-# TODO: this should be `Literal[1]`
-reveal_type(invoke(identity, 1))  # revealed: Unknown
+reveal_type(invoke(identity, 1))  # revealed: Literal[1]
 
 # TODO: this should be `Unknown | int`
 reveal_type(invoke(head, [1, 2, 3]))  # revealed: Unknown

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/generics/legacy/variables.md

@@ -518,8 +518,7 @@ V = TypeVar("V", default="V")
 class D(Generic[V]):
     x: V
 
-# TODO: we shouldn't leak a typevar like this in type inference
-reveal_type(D().x)  # revealed: V@D
+reveal_type(D().x)  # revealed: Unknown
 ```
 
 ## Regression

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/generics/pep695/functions.md

@@ -493,8 +493,7 @@ def identity[T](x: T) -> T:
 def head[T](xs: list[T]) -> T:
     return xs[0]
 
-# TODO: this should be `Literal[1]`
-reveal_type(invoke(identity, 1))  # revealed: Unknown
+reveal_type(invoke(identity, 1))  # revealed: Literal[1]
 
 # TODO: this should be `Unknown | int`
 reveal_type(invoke(head, [1, 2, 3]))  # revealed: Unknown
@@ -736,3 +735,159 @@ def f[T](x: T, y: Not[T]) -> T:
     y = x  # error: [invalid-assignment]
     return x
 ```
+
+## `Callable` parameters
+
+We can recurse into the parameters and return values of `Callable` parameters to infer
+specializations of a generic function.
+
+```py
+from typing import Any, Callable, NoReturn, overload, Self
+from ty_extensions import generic_context, into_callable
+
+def accepts_callable[**P, R](callable: Callable[P, R]) -> Callable[P, R]:
+    return callable
+
+def returns_int() -> int:
+    raise NotImplementedError
+
+# revealed: () -> int
+reveal_type(into_callable(returns_int))
+# revealed: () -> int
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(returns_int))
+# revealed: int
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(returns_int)())
+
+class ClassWithoutConstructor: ...
+
+# revealed: () -> ClassWithoutConstructor
+reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithoutConstructor))
+# revealed: () -> ClassWithoutConstructor
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithoutConstructor))
+# revealed: ClassWithoutConstructor
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithoutConstructor)())
+
+class ClassWithNew:
+    def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs) -> Self:
+        raise NotImplementedError
+
+# revealed: (...) -> ClassWithNew
+reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithNew))
+# revealed: (...) -> ClassWithNew
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNew))
+# revealed: ClassWithNew
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNew)())
+
+class ClassWithInit:
+    def __init__(self) -> None: ...
+
+# revealed: () -> ClassWithInit
+reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithInit))
+# revealed: () -> ClassWithInit
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithInit))
+# revealed: ClassWithInit
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithInit)())
+
+class ClassWithNewAndInit:
+    def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs) -> Self:
+        raise NotImplementedError
+
+    def __init__(self, x: int) -> None: ...
+
+# TODO: We do not currently solve a common behavioral supertype for the two solutions of P.
+# revealed: ((...) -> ClassWithNewAndInit) | ((x: int) -> ClassWithNewAndInit)
+reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithNewAndInit))
+# TODO: revealed: ((...) -> ClassWithNewAndInit) | ((x: int) -> ClassWithNewAndInit)
+# revealed: (...) -> ClassWithNewAndInit
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNewAndInit))
+# revealed: ClassWithNewAndInit
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNewAndInit)())
+
+class Meta(type):
+    def __call__(cls, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> NoReturn:
+        raise NotImplementedError
+
+class ClassWithNoReturnMetatype(metaclass=Meta):
+    def __new__(cls, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> Self:
+        raise NotImplementedError
+
+# TODO: The return types here are wrong, because we end up creating a constraint (Never ≤ R), which
+# we confuse with "R has no lower bound".
+# revealed: (...) -> Never
+reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithNoReturnMetatype))
+# TODO: revealed: (...) -> Never
+# revealed: (...) -> Unknown
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNoReturnMetatype))
+# TODO: revealed: Never
+# revealed: Unknown
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNoReturnMetatype)())
+
+class Proxy: ...
+
+class ClassWithIgnoredInit:
+    def __new__(cls) -> Proxy:
+        return Proxy()
+
+    def __init__(self, x: int) -> None: ...
+
+# revealed: () -> Proxy
+reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithIgnoredInit))
+# revealed: () -> Proxy
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithIgnoredInit))
+# revealed: Proxy
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithIgnoredInit)())
+
+class ClassWithOverloadedInit[T]:
+    t: T  # invariant
+
+    @overload
+    def __init__(self: "ClassWithOverloadedInit[int]", x: int) -> None: ...
+    @overload
+    def __init__(self: "ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]", x: str) -> None: ...
+    def __init__(self, x: int | str) -> None: ...
+
+# TODO: The old solver cannot handle this overloaded constructor. The ideal solution is that we
+# would solve **P once, and map it to the entire overloaded signature of the constructor. This
+# mapping would have to include the return types, since there are different return types for each
+# overload. We would then also have to determine that R must be equal to the return type of **P's
+# solution.
+
+# revealed: Overload[(x: int) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[int], (x: str) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]]
+reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithOverloadedInit))
+# TODO: revealed: Overload[(x: int) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[int], (x: str) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]]
+# revealed: Overload[(x: int) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[int] | ClassWithOverloadedInit[str], (x: str) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[int] | ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]]
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithOverloadedInit))
+# TODO: revealed: ClassWithOverloadedInit[int]
+# revealed: ClassWithOverloadedInit[int] | ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithOverloadedInit)(0))
+# TODO: revealed: ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]
+# revealed: ClassWithOverloadedInit[int] | ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]
+reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithOverloadedInit)(""))
+
+class GenericClass[T]:
+    t: T  # invariant
+
+    def __new__(cls, x: list[T], y: list[T]) -> Self:
+        raise NotImplementedError
+
+def _(x: list[str]):
+    # TODO: This fails because we are not propagating GenericClass's generic context into the
+    # Callable that we create for it.
+    # revealed: (x: list[T@GenericClass], y: list[T@GenericClass]) -> GenericClass[T@GenericClass]
+    reveal_type(into_callable(GenericClass))
+    # revealed: ty_extensions.GenericContext[T@GenericClass]
+    reveal_type(generic_context(into_callable(GenericClass)))
+
+    # revealed: (x: list[T@GenericClass], y: list[T@GenericClass]) -> GenericClass[T@GenericClass]
+    reveal_type(accepts_callable(GenericClass))
+    # TODO: revealed: ty_extensions.GenericContext[T@GenericClass]
+    # revealed: None
+    reveal_type(generic_context(accepts_callable(GenericClass)))
+
+    # TODO: revealed: GenericClass[str]
+    # TODO: no errors
+    # revealed: GenericClass[T@GenericClass]
+    # error: [invalid-argument-type]
+    # error: [invalid-argument-type]
+    reveal_type(accepts_callable(GenericClass)(x, x))
+```

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/generics/pep695/paramspec.md

@@ -503,7 +503,8 @@ class C[**P]:
     def __init__(self, f: Callable[P, int]) -> None:
         self.f = f
 
-def f(x: int, y: str) -> bool:
+# Note that the return type must match exactly, since C is invariant on the return type of C.f.
+def f(x: int, y: str) -> int:
     return True
 
 c = C(f)
@@ -618,6 +619,22 @@ reveal_type(foo.method)  # revealed: bound method Foo[(int, str, /)].method(int,
 reveal_type(foo.method(1, "a"))  # revealed: str
 ```
 
+### Gradual types propagate through `ParamSpec` inference
+
+```py
+from typing import Callable
+
+def callable_identity[**P, R](func: Callable[P, R]) -> Callable[P, R]:
+    return func
+
+@callable_identity
+def f(env: dict) -> None:
+    pass
+
+# revealed: (env: dict[Unknown, Unknown]) -> None
+reveal_type(f)
+```
+
 ### Overloads
 
 `overloaded.pyi`:
@@ -662,7 +679,7 @@ reveal_type(change_return_type(int_int))  # revealed: Overload[(x: int) -> str,
 reveal_type(change_return_type(int_str))  # revealed: Overload[(x: int) -> str, (x: str) -> str]
 
 # error: [invalid-argument-type]
-reveal_type(change_return_type(str_str))  # revealed: Overload[(x: int) -> str, (x: str) -> str]
+reveal_type(change_return_type(str_str))  # revealed: (...) -> str
 
 # TODO: Both of these shouldn't raise an error
 # error: [invalid-argument-type]

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/generics/pep695/variables.md

@@ -883,7 +883,7 @@ reveal_type(C[int]().y)  # revealed: int
 class D[T = T]:
     x: T
 
-reveal_type(D().x)  # revealed: T@D
+reveal_type(D().x)  # revealed: Unknown
 ```
 
 [pep 695]: https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/generics/specialize_constrained.md

@@ -426,7 +426,8 @@ from ty_extensions import ConstraintSet, generic_context
 def mentions[T, U]():
     # (T@mentions ≤ int) ∧ (U@mentions = list[T@mentions])
     constraints = ConstraintSet.range(Never, T, int) & ConstraintSet.range(list[T], U, list[T])
-    # revealed: ty_extensions.Specialization[T@mentions = int, U@mentions = list[int]]
+    # TODO: revealed: ty_extensions.Specialization[T@mentions = int, U@mentions = list[int]]
+    # revealed: ty_extensions.Specialization[T@mentions = int, U@mentions = Unknown]
     reveal_type(generic_context(mentions).specialize_constrained(constraints))
 ```
 

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/literal_promotion.md

@@ -304,7 +304,7 @@ x11: list[Literal[1] | Literal[2] | Literal[3]] = [1, 2, 3]
 reveal_type(x11)  # revealed: list[Literal[1, 2, 3]]
 
 x12: Y[Y[Literal[1]]] = [[1]]
-reveal_type(x12)  # revealed: list[Y[Literal[1]]]
+reveal_type(x12)  # revealed: list[list[Literal[1]]]
 
 x13: list[tuple[Literal[1], Literal[2], Literal[3]]] = [(1, 2, 3)]
 reveal_type(x13)  # revealed: list[tuple[Literal[1], Literal[2], Literal[3]]]

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/snapshots/deprecated.md_-_Tests_for_the_`@depr…_-_Introduction_(cff2724f4c9d28c4).snap

@@ -15,9 +15,9 @@ mdtest path: crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/deprecated.md
  1 | from typing_extensions import deprecated
  2 | 
  3 | @deprecated("use OtherClass")
- 4 | def myfunc(): ...
+ 4 | def myfunc(x: int): ...
  5 | 
- 6 | myfunc()  # error: [deprecated] "use OtherClass"
+ 6 | myfunc(1)  # error: [deprecated] "use OtherClass"
  7 | from typing_extensions import deprecated
  8 | 
  9 | @deprecated("use BetterClass")
@@ -42,9 +42,9 @@ mdtest path: crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/deprecated.md
 warning[deprecated]: The function `myfunc` is deprecated
  --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:6:1
   |
-4 | def myfunc(): ...
+4 | def myfunc(x: int): ...
 5 |
-6 | myfunc()  # error: [deprecated] "use OtherClass"
+6 | myfunc(1)  # error: [deprecated] "use OtherClass"
   | ^^^^^^ use OtherClass
 7 | from typing_extensions import deprecated
   |

crates/ty_python_semantic/src/types.rs

@@ -918,16 +918,33 @@ impl<'db> Type<'db> {
         previous: Self,
         cycle: &salsa::Cycle,
     ) -> Self {
-        // Avoid unioning two generic aliases of the same class together; this union will never
-        // simplify and is likely to cause downstream problems. This introduces the theoretical
-        // possibility of cycle oscillation involving such types (because we are not strictly
-        // widening the type on each iteration), but so far we have not seen an example of that.
+        // When we encounter a salsa cycle, we want to avoid oscillating between two or more types
+        // without converging on a fixed-point result. Most of the time, we union together the
+        // types from each cycle iteration to ensure that our result is monotonic, even if we
+        // encounter oscillation.
+        //
+        // However, there are a couple of cases where we don't want to do that, and want to use the
+        // later cycle iteration's result directly. This introduces the theoretical possibility of
+        // cycle oscillation involving such types (because we are not strictly widening the type on
+        // each iteration), but so far we have not seen an example of that.
         match (previous, self) {
+            // Avoid unioning two generic aliases of the same class together; this union will never
+            // simplify and is likely to cause downstream problems.
             (Type::GenericAlias(prev_alias), Type::GenericAlias(curr_alias))
                 if prev_alias.origin(db) == curr_alias.origin(db) =>
             {
                 self
             }
+
+            // Similarly, don't union together two function literals, since there are several parts
+            // of our type inference machinery that assume that we infer a single FunctionLiteral
+            // type for each overload of each function definition.
+            (Type::FunctionLiteral(prev_function), Type::FunctionLiteral(curr_function))
+                if prev_function.definition(db) == curr_function.definition(db) =>
+            {
+                self
+            }
+
             _ => {
                 // Also avoid unioning in a previous type which contains a Divergent from the
                 // current cycle, if the most-recent type does not. This cannot cause an
@@ -1843,7 +1860,7 @@ impl<'db> Type<'db> {
                 }
             }
             Type::ClassLiteral(class_literal) => {
-                Some(class_literal.default_specialization(db).into_callable(db))
+                Some(class_literal.identity_specialization(db).into_callable(db))
             }
 
             Type::GenericAlias(alias) => Some(ClassType::Generic(alias).into_callable(db)),
@@ -1975,6 +1992,16 @@ impl<'db> Type<'db> {
             .is_always_satisfied(db)
     }
 
+    /// Return true if this type is assignable to type `target` using constraint-set assignability.
+    ///
+    /// This uses `TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability`, which encodes typevar relations into
+    /// a constraint set and lets `satisfied_by_all_typevars` perform existential vs universal
+    /// reasoning depending on inferable typevars.
+    pub fn is_constraint_set_assignable_to(self, db: &'db dyn Db, target: Type<'db>) -> bool {
+        self.when_constraint_set_assignable_to(db, target, InferableTypeVars::None)
+            .is_always_satisfied(db)
+    }
+
     fn when_assignable_to(
         self,
         db: &'db dyn Db,
@@ -1984,6 +2011,20 @@ impl<'db> Type<'db> {
         self.has_relation_to(db, target, inferable, TypeRelation::Assignability)
     }
 
+    fn when_constraint_set_assignable_to(
+        self,
+        db: &'db dyn Db,
+        target: Type<'db>,
+        inferable: InferableTypeVars<'_, 'db>,
+    ) -> ConstraintSet<'db> {
+        self.has_relation_to(
+            db,
+            target,
+            inferable,
+            TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability,
+        )
+    }
+
     /// Return `true` if it would be redundant to add `self` to a union that already contains `other`.
     ///
     /// See [`TypeRelation::Redundancy`] for more details.
@@ -2049,6 +2090,21 @@ impl<'db> Type<'db> {
             return constraints.implies_subtype_of(db, self, target);
         }
 
+        // Handle the new constraint-set-based assignability relation next. Comparisons with a
+        // typevar are translated directly into a constraint set.
+        if relation.is_constraint_set_assignability() {
+            // A typevar satisfies a relation when...it satisfies the relation. Yes that's a
+            // tautology! We're moving the caller's subtyping/assignability requirement into a
+            // constraint set. If the typevar has an upper bound or constraints, then the relation
+            // only has to hold when the typevar has a valid specialization (i.e., one that
+            // satisfies the upper bound/constraints).
+            if let Type::TypeVar(bound_typevar) = self {
+                return ConstraintSet::constrain_typevar(db, bound_typevar, Type::Never, target);
+            } else if let Type::TypeVar(bound_typevar) = target {
+                return ConstraintSet::constrain_typevar(db, bound_typevar, self, Type::object());
+            }
+        }
+
         match (self, target) {
             // Everything is a subtype of `object`.
             (_, Type::NominalInstance(instance)) if instance.is_object() => {
@@ -2129,7 +2185,7 @@ impl<'db> Type<'db> {
                 );
                 ConstraintSet::from(match relation {
                     TypeRelation::Subtyping | TypeRelation::SubtypingAssuming(_) => false,
-                    TypeRelation::Assignability => true,
+                    TypeRelation::Assignability | TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability => true,
                     TypeRelation::Redundancy => match target {
                         Type::Dynamic(_) => true,
                         Type::Union(union) => union.elements(db).iter().any(Type::is_dynamic),
@@ -2139,7 +2195,7 @@ impl<'db> Type<'db> {
             }
             (_, Type::Dynamic(_)) => ConstraintSet::from(match relation {
                 TypeRelation::Subtyping | TypeRelation::SubtypingAssuming(_) => false,
-                TypeRelation::Assignability => true,
+                TypeRelation::Assignability | TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability => true,
                 TypeRelation::Redundancy => match self {
                     Type::Dynamic(_) => true,
                     Type::Intersection(intersection) => {
@@ -2403,14 +2459,19 @@ impl<'db> Type<'db> {
                         TypeRelation::Subtyping
                         | TypeRelation::Redundancy
                         | TypeRelation::SubtypingAssuming(_) => self,
-                        TypeRelation::Assignability => self.bottom_materialization(db),
+                        TypeRelation::Assignability | TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability => {
+                            self.bottom_materialization(db)
+                        }
                     };
                     intersection.negative(db).iter().when_all(db, |&neg_ty| {
                         let neg_ty = match relation {
                             TypeRelation::Subtyping
                             | TypeRelation::Redundancy
                             | TypeRelation::SubtypingAssuming(_) => neg_ty,
-                            TypeRelation::Assignability => neg_ty.bottom_materialization(db),
+                            TypeRelation::Assignability
+                            | TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability => {
+                                neg_ty.bottom_materialization(db)
+                            }
                         };
                         self_ty.is_disjoint_from_impl(
                             db,
@@ -9777,6 +9838,22 @@ impl<'db> TypeVarInstance<'db> {
         ))
     }
 
+    fn type_is_self_referential(self, db: &'db dyn Db, ty: Type<'db>) -> bool {
+        let identity = self.identity(db);
+        any_over_type(
+            db,
+            ty,
+            &|ty| match ty {
+                Type::TypeVar(bound_typevar) => identity == bound_typevar.typevar(db).identity(db),
+                Type::KnownInstance(KnownInstanceType::TypeVar(typevar)) => {
+                    identity == typevar.identity(db)
+                }
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
     #[salsa::tracked(
         cycle_fn=lazy_bound_or_constraints_cycle_recover,
         cycle_initial=lazy_bound_or_constraints_cycle_initial,
@@ -9799,6 +9876,11 @@ impl<'db> TypeVarInstance<'db> {
             }
             _ => return None,
         };
+
+        if self.type_is_self_referential(db, ty) {
+            return None;
+        }
+
         Some(TypeVarBoundOrConstraints::UpperBound(ty))
     }
 
@@ -9846,6 +9928,15 @@ impl<'db> TypeVarInstance<'db> {
             }
             _ => return None,
         };
+
+        if constraints
+            .elements(db)
+            .iter()
+            .any(|ty| self.type_is_self_referential(db, *ty))
+        {
+            return None;
+        }
+
         Some(TypeVarBoundOrConstraints::Constraints(constraints))
     }
 
@@ -9892,15 +9983,11 @@ impl<'db> TypeVarInstance<'db> {
 
         let definition = self.definition(db)?;
         let module = parsed_module(db, definition.file(db)).load(db);
-        match definition.kind(db) {
+        let ty = match definition.kind(db) {
             // PEP 695 typevar
             DefinitionKind::TypeVar(typevar) => {
                 let typevar_node = typevar.node(&module);
-                Some(definition_expression_type(
-                    db,
-                    definition,
-                    typevar_node.default.as_ref()?,
-                ))
+                definition_expression_type(db, definition, typevar_node.default.as_ref()?)
             }
             // legacy typevar / ParamSpec
             DefinitionKind::Assignment(assignment) => {
@@ -9910,9 +9997,9 @@ impl<'db> TypeVarInstance<'db> {
                 let expr = &call_expr.arguments.find_keyword("default")?.value;
                 let default_type = definition_expression_type(db, definition, expr);
                 if known_class == Some(KnownClass::ParamSpec) {
-                    Some(convert_type_to_paramspec_value(db, default_type))
+                    convert_type_to_paramspec_value(db, default_type)
                 } else {
-                    Some(default_type)
+                    default_type
                 }
             }
             // PEP 695 ParamSpec
@@ -9920,10 +10007,16 @@ impl<'db> TypeVarInstance<'db> {
                 let paramspec_node = paramspec.node(&module);
                 let default_ty =
                     definition_expression_type(db, definition, paramspec_node.default.as_ref()?);
-                Some(convert_type_to_paramspec_value(db, default_ty))
+                convert_type_to_paramspec_value(db, default_ty)
             }
-            _ => None,
+            _ => return None,
+        };
+
+        if self.type_is_self_referential(db, ty) {
+            return None;
         }
+
+        Some(ty)
     }
 
     pub fn bind_pep695(self, db: &'db dyn Db) -> Option<BoundTypeVarInstance<'db>> {
@@ -12000,6 +12093,11 @@ pub(crate) enum TypeRelation<'db> {
     ///   are not actually subtypes of each other. (That is, `implies_subtype_of(false, int, str)`
     ///   will return true!)
     SubtypingAssuming(ConstraintSet<'db>),
+
+    /// A placeholder for the new assignability relation that uses constraint sets to encode
+    /// relationships with a typevar. This will eventually replace `Assignability`, but allows us
+    /// to start using the new relation in a controlled manner in some places.
+    ConstraintSetAssignability,
 }
 
 impl TypeRelation<'_> {
@@ -12007,6 +12105,10 @@ impl TypeRelation<'_> {
         matches!(self, TypeRelation::Assignability)
     }
 
+    pub(crate) const fn is_constraint_set_assignability(self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability)
+    }
+
     pub(crate) const fn is_subtyping(self) -> bool {
         matches!(self, TypeRelation::Subtyping)
     }
@@ -12492,6 +12594,10 @@ impl<'db> CallableTypes<'db> {
         }
     }
 
+    fn as_slice(&self) -> &[CallableType<'db>] {
+        &self.0
+    }
+
     fn into_inner(self) -> SmallVec<[CallableType<'db>; 1]> {
         self.0
     }

crates/ty_python_semantic/src/types/builder.rs

@@ -689,20 +689,10 @@ impl<'db> IntersectionBuilder<'db> {
         }
     }
 
-    pub(crate) fn order_elements(mut self, val: bool) -> Self {
-        self.order_elements = val;
-        self
-    }
-
     pub(crate) fn add_positive(self, ty: Type<'db>) -> Self {
         self.add_positive_impl(ty, &mut vec![])
     }
 
-    pub(crate) fn add_positive_in_place(&mut self, ty: Type<'db>) {
-        let updated = std::mem::replace(self, Self::empty(self.db)).add_positive(ty);
-        *self = updated;
-    }
-
     pub(crate) fn add_positive_impl(
         mut self,
         ty: Type<'db>,

crates/ty_python_semantic/src/types/class.rs

@@ -637,7 +637,9 @@ impl<'db> ClassType<'db> {
                     | TypeRelation::SubtypingAssuming(_) => {
                         ConstraintSet::from(other.is_object(db))
                     }
-                    TypeRelation::Assignability => ConstraintSet::from(!other.is_final(db)),
+                    TypeRelation::Assignability | TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability => {
+                        ConstraintSet::from(!other.is_final(db))
+                    }
                 },
 
                 // Protocol, Generic, and TypedDict are not represented by a ClassType.

crates/ty_python_semantic/src/types/generics.rs

@@ -13,15 +13,15 @@ use crate::types::class::ClassType;
 use crate::types::class_base::ClassBase;
 use crate::types::constraints::{ConstraintSet, IteratorConstraintsExtension};
 use crate::types::instance::{Protocol, ProtocolInstanceType};
-use crate::types::signatures::{Parameters, ParametersKind};
+use crate::types::signatures::Parameters;
 use crate::types::tuple::{TupleSpec, TupleType, walk_tuple_type};
+use crate::types::variance::VarianceInferable;
 use crate::types::visitor::{TypeCollector, TypeVisitor, walk_type_with_recursion_guard};
 use crate::types::{
     ApplyTypeMappingVisitor, BindingContext, BoundTypeVarIdentity, BoundTypeVarInstance,
-    CallableSignature, CallableType, CallableTypeKind, CallableTypes, ClassLiteral,
-    FindLegacyTypeVarsVisitor, HasRelationToVisitor, IsDisjointVisitor, IsEquivalentVisitor,
-    KnownClass, KnownInstanceType, MaterializationKind, NormalizedVisitor, Signature, Type,
-    TypeContext, TypeMapping, TypeRelation, TypeVarBoundOrConstraints, TypeVarIdentity,
+    ClassLiteral, FindLegacyTypeVarsVisitor, HasRelationToVisitor, IsDisjointVisitor,
+    IsEquivalentVisitor, KnownClass, KnownInstanceType, MaterializationKind, NormalizedVisitor,
+    Type, TypeContext, TypeMapping, TypeRelation, TypeVarBoundOrConstraints, TypeVarIdentity,
     TypeVarInstance, TypeVarKind, TypeVarVariance, UnionType, declaration_type,
     walk_type_var_bounds,
 };
@@ -571,6 +571,14 @@ impl<'db> GenericContext<'db> {
                 let partial = PartialSpecialization {
                     generic_context: self,
                     types: &types,
+                    // Don't recursively substitute type[i] in itself. Ideally, we could instead
+                    // check if the result is self-referential after we're done applying the
+                    // partial specialization. But when we apply a paramspec, we don't use the
+                    // callable that it maps to directly; we create a new callable that reuses
+                    // parts of it. That means we can't look for the previous type directly.
+                    // Instead we use this to skip specializing the type in itself in the first
+                    // place.
+                    skip: Some(i),
                 };
                 let updated = types[i].apply_type_mapping(
                     db,
@@ -641,6 +649,7 @@ impl<'db> GenericContext<'db> {
             let partial = PartialSpecialization {
                 generic_context: self,
                 types: &expanded[0..idx],
+                skip: None,
             };
             let default = default.apply_type_mapping(
                 db,
@@ -917,7 +926,11 @@ fn has_relation_in_invariant_position<'db>(
             disjointness_visitor,
         ),
         // And A <~ B (assignability) is Bottom[A] <: Top[B]
-        (None, Some(base_mat), TypeRelation::Assignability) => is_subtype_in_invariant_position(
+        (
+            None,
+            Some(base_mat),
+            TypeRelation::Assignability | TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability,
+        ) => is_subtype_in_invariant_position(
             db,
             derived_type,
             MaterializationKind::Bottom,
@@ -927,7 +940,11 @@ fn has_relation_in_invariant_position<'db>(
             relation_visitor,
             disjointness_visitor,
         ),
-        (Some(derived_mat), None, TypeRelation::Assignability) => is_subtype_in_invariant_position(
+        (
+            Some(derived_mat),
+            None,
+            TypeRelation::Assignability | TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability,
+        ) => is_subtype_in_invariant_position(
             db,
             derived_type,
             derived_mat,
@@ -1438,6 +1455,9 @@ impl<'db> Specialization<'db> {
 pub struct PartialSpecialization<'a, 'db> {
     generic_context: GenericContext<'db>,
     types: &'a [Type<'db>],
+    /// An optional typevar to _not_ substitute when applying the specialization. We use this to
+    /// avoid recursively substituting a type inside of itself.
+    skip: Option<usize>,
 }
 
 impl<'db> PartialSpecialization<'_, 'db> {
@@ -1452,6 +1472,9 @@ impl<'db> PartialSpecialization<'_, 'db> {
             .generic_context
             .variables_inner(db)
             .get_index_of(&bound_typevar.identity(db))?;
+        if self.skip.is_some_and(|skip| skip == index) {
+            return Some(Type::Never);
+        }
         self.types.get(index).copied()
     }
 }
@@ -1509,7 +1532,7 @@ impl<'db> SpecializationBuilder<'db> {
             .map(|(identity, _)| self.types.get(identity).copied());
 
         // TODO Infer the tuple spec for a tuple type
-        generic_context.specialize_partial(self.db, types)
+        generic_context.specialize_recursive(self.db, types)
     }
 
     fn add_type_mapping(
@@ -1543,6 +1566,59 @@ impl<'db> SpecializationBuilder<'db> {
         }
     }
 
+    /// Finds all of the valid specializations of a constraint set, and adds their type mappings to
+    /// the specialization that this builder is building up.
+    ///
+    /// `formal` should be the top-level formal parameter type that we are inferring. This is used
+    /// by our literal promotion logic, which needs to know which typevars are affected by each
+    /// argument, and the variance of those typevars in the corresponding parameter.
+    ///
+    /// TODO: This is a stopgap! Eventually, the builder will maintain a single constraint set for
+    /// the main specialization that we are building, and [`build`][Self::build] will build the
+    /// specialization directly from that constraint set. This method lets us migrate to that brave
+    /// new world incrementally, by using the new constraint set mechanism piecemeal for certain
+    /// type comparisons.
+    fn add_type_mappings_from_constraint_set(
+        &mut self,
+        formal: Type<'db>,
+        constraints: ConstraintSet<'db>,
+        mut f: impl FnMut(TypeVarAssignment<'db>) -> Option<Type<'db>>,
+    ) {
+        let constraints = constraints.limit_to_valid_specializations(self.db);
+        constraints.for_each_path(self.db, |path| {
+            for (constraint, _) in path.positive_constraints() {
+                let typevar = constraint.typevar(self.db);
+                let lower = constraint.lower(self.db);
+                let upper = constraint.upper(self.db);
+                if !upper.is_object() {
+                    let variance = formal.variance_of(self.db, typevar);
+                    self.add_type_mapping(typevar, upper, variance, &mut f);
+                } else if !lower.is_never() {
+                    let variance = formal.variance_of(self.db, typevar);
+                    self.add_type_mapping(typevar, lower, variance, &mut f);
+                }
+                if let Type::TypeVar(lower_bound_typevar) = lower {
+                    let variance = formal.variance_of(self.db, lower_bound_typevar);
+                    self.add_type_mapping(
+                        lower_bound_typevar,
+                        Type::TypeVar(typevar),
+                        variance,
+                        &mut f,
+                    );
+                }
+                if let Type::TypeVar(upper_bound_typevar) = upper {
+                    let variance = formal.variance_of(self.db, upper_bound_typevar);
+                    self.add_type_mapping(
+                        upper_bound_typevar,
+                        Type::TypeVar(typevar),
+                        variance,
+                        &mut f,
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+        });
+    }
+
     /// Infer type mappings for the specialization based on a given type and its declared type.
     pub(crate) fn infer(
         &mut self,
@@ -1572,6 +1648,15 @@ impl<'db> SpecializationBuilder<'db> {
         polarity: TypeVarVariance,
         mut f: &mut dyn FnMut(TypeVarAssignment<'db>) -> Option<Type<'db>>,
     ) -> Result<(), SpecializationError<'db>> {
+        // TODO: Eventually, the builder will maintain a constraint set, instead of a hash-map of
+        // type mappings, to represent the specialization that we are building up. At that point,
+        // this method will just need to compare `actual ≤ formal`, using constraint set
+        // assignability, and AND the result into the constraint set we are building.
+        //
+        // To make progress on that migration, we use constraint set assignability whenever
+        // possible when adding any new heuristics here. See the `Callable` clause below for an
+        // example.
+
         if formal == actual {
             return Ok(());
         }
@@ -1827,43 +1912,19 @@ impl<'db> SpecializationBuilder<'db> {
             }
 
             (Type::Callable(formal_callable), _) => {
-                if let Some(actual_callable) = actual
-                    .try_upcast_to_callable(self.db)
-                    .and_then(CallableTypes::exactly_one)
-                {
-                    // We're only interested in a formal callable of the form `Callable[P, ...]` for
-                    // now where `P` is a `ParamSpec`.
-                    // TODO: This would need to be updated once we support `Concatenate`
-                    // TODO: What to do for overloaded callables?
-                    let [signature] = formal_callable.signatures(self.db).as_slice() else {
-                        return Ok(());
-                    };
-                    let formal_parameters = signature.parameters();
-                    let ParametersKind::ParamSpec(typevar) = formal_parameters.kind() else {
-                        return Ok(());
-                    };
-                    let paramspec_value = match actual_callable.signatures(self.db).as_slice() {
-                        [] => return Ok(()),
-                        [actual_signature] => match actual_signature.parameters().kind() {
-                            ParametersKind::ParamSpec(typevar) => Type::TypeVar(typevar),
-                            _ => Type::Callable(CallableType::new(
-                                self.db,
-                                CallableSignature::single(Signature::new(
-                                    actual_signature.parameters().clone(),
-                                    None,
-                                )),
-                                CallableTypeKind::ParamSpecValue,
-                            )),
-                        },
-                        actual_signatures => Type::Callable(CallableType::new(
+                let Some(actual_callables) = actual.try_upcast_to_callable(self.db) else {
+                    return Ok(());
+                };
+
+                for actual_callable in actual_callables.as_slice() {
+                    let when = actual_callable
+                        .signatures(self.db)
+                        .when_constraint_set_assignable_to(
                             self.db,
-                            CallableSignature::from_overloads(actual_signatures.iter().map(
-                                |signature| Signature::new(signature.parameters().clone(), None),
-                            )),
-                            CallableTypeKind::ParamSpecValue,
-                        )),
-                    };
-                    self.add_type_mapping(typevar, paramspec_value, polarity, &mut f);
+                            formal_callable.signatures(self.db),
+                            self.inferable,
+                        );
+                    self.add_type_mappings_from_constraint_set(formal, when, &mut f);
                 }
             }
 

crates/ty_python_semantic/src/types/signatures.rs

@@ -17,11 +17,13 @@ use smallvec::{SmallVec, smallvec_inline};
 
 use super::{DynamicType, Type, TypeVarVariance, definition_expression_type, semantic_index};
 use crate::semantic_index::definition::Definition;
-use crate::types::constraints::{ConstraintSet, IteratorConstraintsExtension};
+use crate::types::constraints::{
+    ConstraintSet, IteratorConstraintsExtension, OptionConstraintsExtension,
+};
 use crate::types::generics::{GenericContext, InferableTypeVars, walk_generic_context};
 use crate::types::infer::{infer_deferred_types, infer_scope_types};
 use crate::types::{
-    ApplyTypeMappingVisitor, BindingContext, BoundTypeVarInstance, CallableTypeKind,
+    ApplyTypeMappingVisitor, BindingContext, BoundTypeVarInstance, CallableType, CallableTypeKind,
     FindLegacyTypeVarsVisitor, HasRelationToVisitor, IsDisjointVisitor, IsEquivalentVisitor,
     KnownClass, MaterializationKind, NormalizedVisitor, ParamSpecAttrKind, TypeContext,
     TypeMapping, TypeRelation, VarianceInferable, todo_type,
@@ -90,10 +92,6 @@ impl<'db> CallableSignature<'db> {
         self.overloads.iter()
     }
 
-    pub(crate) fn as_slice(&self) -> &[Signature<'db>] {
-        &self.overloads
-    }
-
     pub(crate) fn with_inherited_generic_context(
         &self,
         db: &'db dyn Db,
@@ -337,6 +335,38 @@ impl<'db> CallableSignature<'db> {
         )
     }
 
+    /// Checks whether the given slice contains a single signature, and that signature is a
+    /// `ParamSpec` signature. If so, returns the [`BoundTypeVarInstance`] for the `ParamSpec`,
+    /// along with the return type of the signature.
+    fn signatures_is_single_paramspec(
+        signatures: &[Signature<'db>],
+    ) -> Option<(BoundTypeVarInstance<'db>, Option<Type<'db>>)> {
+        // TODO: This might need updating once we support `Concatenate`
+        let [signature] = signatures else {
+            return None;
+        };
+        signature
+            .parameters
+            .as_paramspec()
+            .map(|bound_typevar| (bound_typevar, signature.return_ty))
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn when_constraint_set_assignable_to(
+        &self,
+        db: &'db dyn Db,
+        other: &Self,
+        inferable: InferableTypeVars<'_, 'db>,
+    ) -> ConstraintSet<'db> {
+        self.has_relation_to_impl(
+            db,
+            other,
+            inferable,
+            TypeRelation::ConstraintSetAssignability,
+            &HasRelationToVisitor::default(),
+            &IsDisjointVisitor::default(),
+        )
+    }
+
     /// Implementation of subtyping and assignability between two, possible overloaded, callable
     /// types.
     fn has_relation_to_inner(
@@ -348,6 +378,116 @@ impl<'db> CallableSignature<'db> {
         relation_visitor: &HasRelationToVisitor<'db>,
         disjointness_visitor: &IsDisjointVisitor<'db>,
     ) -> ConstraintSet<'db> {
+        if relation.is_constraint_set_assignability() {
+            // TODO: Oof, maybe ParamSpec needs to live at CallableSignature, not Signature?
+            let self_is_single_paramspec = Self::signatures_is_single_paramspec(self_signatures);
+            let other_is_single_paramspec = Self::signatures_is_single_paramspec(other_signatures);
+
+            // If either callable is a ParamSpec, the constraint set should bind the ParamSpec to
+            // the other callable's signature. We also need to compare the return types — for
+            // instance, to verify in `Callable[P, int]` that the return type is assignable to
+            // `int`, or in `Callable[P, T]` to bind `T` to the return type of the other callable.
+            //
+            // TODO: This logic might need to move down into `Signature`, if we need paramspecs to
+            // be able to match a _subset_ of an overloaded callable. (In that case, we need to
+            // check each signature individually, and combine together the ones that match into the
+            // overloaded callable that the paramspec binds to.)
+            match (self_is_single_paramspec, other_is_single_paramspec) {
+                (
+                    Some((self_bound_typevar, self_return_type)),
+                    Some((other_bound_typevar, other_return_type)),
+                ) => {
+                    let param_spec_matches = ConstraintSet::constrain_typevar(
+                        db,
+                        self_bound_typevar,
+                        Type::TypeVar(other_bound_typevar),
+                        Type::TypeVar(other_bound_typevar),
+                    );
+                    let return_types_match = self_return_type.zip(other_return_type).when_some_and(
+                        |(self_return_type, other_return_type)| {
+                            self_return_type.has_relation_to_impl(
+                                db,
+                                other_return_type,
+                                inferable,
+                                relation,
+                                relation_visitor,
+                                disjointness_visitor,
+                            )
+                        },
+                    );
+                    return param_spec_matches.and(db, || return_types_match);
+                }
+
+                (Some((self_bound_typevar, self_return_type)), None) => {
+                    let upper =
+                        Type::Callable(CallableType::new(
+                            db,
+                            CallableSignature::from_overloads(other_signatures.iter().map(
+                                |signature| Signature::new(signature.parameters().clone(), None),
+                            )),
+                            CallableTypeKind::ParamSpecValue,
+                        ));
+                    let param_spec_matches = ConstraintSet::constrain_typevar(
+                        db,
+                        self_bound_typevar,
+                        Type::Never,
+                        upper,
+                    );
+                    let return_types_match = self_return_type.when_some_and(|self_return_type| {
+                        other_signatures
+                            .iter()
+                            .filter_map(|signature| signature.return_ty)
+                            .when_any(db, |other_return_type| {
+                                self_return_type.has_relation_to_impl(
+                                    db,
+                                    other_return_type,
+                                    inferable,
+                                    relation,
+                                    relation_visitor,
+                                    disjointness_visitor,
+                                )
+                            })
+                    });
+                    return param_spec_matches.and(db, || return_types_match);
+                }
+
+                (None, Some((other_bound_typevar, other_return_type))) => {
+                    let lower =
+                        Type::Callable(CallableType::new(
+                            db,
+                            CallableSignature::from_overloads(self_signatures.iter().map(
+                                |signature| Signature::new(signature.parameters().clone(), None),
+                            )),
+                            CallableTypeKind::ParamSpecValue,
+                        ));
+                    let param_spec_matches = ConstraintSet::constrain_typevar(
+                        db,
+                        other_bound_typevar,
+                        lower,
+                        Type::object(),
+                    );
+                    let return_types_match = other_return_type.when_some_and(|other_return_type| {
+                        self_signatures
+                            .iter()
+                            .filter_map(|signature| signature.return_ty)
+                            .when_any(db, |self_return_type| {
+                                self_return_type.has_relation_to_impl(
+                                    db,
+                                    other_return_type,
+                                    inferable,
+                                    relation,
+                                    relation_visitor,
+                                    disjointness_visitor,
+                                )
+                            })
+                    });
+                    return param_spec_matches.and(db, || return_types_match);
+                }
+
+                (None, None) => {}
+            }
+        }
+
         match (self_signatures, other_signatures) {
             ([self_signature], [other_signature]) => {
                 // Base case: both callable types contain a single signature.
@@ -1133,7 +1273,13 @@ impl<'db> Signature<'db> {
         // If either of the parameter lists is gradual (`...`), then it is assignable to and from
         // any other parameter list, but not a subtype or supertype of any other parameter list.
         if self.parameters.is_gradual() || other.parameters.is_gradual() {
-            return ConstraintSet::from(relation.is_assignability());
+            result.intersect(
+                db,
+                ConstraintSet::from(
+                    relation.is_assignability() || relation.is_constraint_set_assignability(),
+                ),
+            );
+            return result;
         }
 
         let mut parameters = ParametersZip {
@@ -1553,6 +1699,13 @@ impl<'db> Parameters<'db> {
         matches!(self.kind, ParametersKind::Gradual)
     }
 
+    pub(crate) const fn as_paramspec(&self) -> Option<BoundTypeVarInstance<'db>> {
+        match self.kind {
+            ParametersKind::ParamSpec(bound_typevar) => Some(bound_typevar),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Return todo parameters: (*args: Todo, **kwargs: Todo)
     pub(crate) fn todo() -> Self {
         Self {

crates/ty_server/src/server/api/requests/hover.rs

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 use std::borrow::Cow;
 
-use crate::document::{FileRangeExt, PositionExt, ToRangeExt};
+use crate::document::{FileRangeExt, PositionExt};
 use crate::server::api::traits::{
     BackgroundDocumentRequestHandler, RequestHandler, RetriableRequestHandler,
 };
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ use crate::session::DocumentSnapshot;
 use crate::session::client::Client;
 use lsp_types::request::HoverRequest;
 use lsp_types::{HoverContents, HoverParams, MarkupContent, Url};
-use ty_ide::{MarkupKind, NavigationTarget, hover};
+use ty_ide::{MarkupKind, hover};
 use ty_project::ProjectDatabase;
 
 pub(crate) struct HoverRequestHandler;
@@ -61,23 +61,7 @@ impl BackgroundDocumentRequestHandler for HoverRequestHandler {
             (MarkupKind::PlainText, lsp_types::MarkupKind::PlainText)
         };
 
-        let to_lsp_link = |target: &NavigationTarget| -> Option<String> {
-            let file = target.file();
-            let location = target
-                .focus_range()
-                .to_lsp_range(db, file, snapshot.encoding())?
-                .to_location()?;
-            let uri = location.uri;
-            let line1 = location.range.start.line;
-            let char1 = location.range.start.character;
-            let line2 = location.range.end.line;
-            let char2 = location.range.end.character;
-            Some(format!("{uri}#L{line1}C{char1}-L{line2}C{char2}"))
-        };
-
-        let contents = range_info
-            .display(db, markup_kind, &to_lsp_link)
-            .to_string();
+        let contents = range_info.display(db, markup_kind).to_string();
 
         Ok(Some(lsp_types::Hover {
             contents: HoverContents::Markup(MarkupContent {

crates/ty_wasm/src/lib.rs

@@ -399,7 +399,7 @@ impl Workspace {
 
         Ok(Some(Hover {
             markdown: range_info
-                .display(&self.db, MarkupKind::Markdown, &|_| None)
+                .display(&self.db, MarkupKind::Markdown)
                 .to_string(),
             range: source_range,
         }))